How do distance learners self-regulate learning? A latent profile analysis of self-regulated learning and its relationship with self-regulatory efficacy, motivation, need satisfaction, need frustration, academic achievement, and well-being

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is important for academic success in flexible learning environments such as online distance education. In this study, we explored the relationship between SRL and factors such as self-regulatory efficacy, motivation, psychological need satisfaction, mental well-being, and academic achievement among 1151 distance learners using mixture modeling. Latent profile analysis identified five SRL profiles varying from poor (i.e., Low and Minimal profiles) to proactive SRL (i.e., Social, Moderate, and Independent profiles) based on self-reported SRL strategies (e.g., task understanding and time management). Self-regulatory efficacy was an important differentiator between poor and proactive SRL, while competence frustration correlated with membership in proactive profiles. Relatedness satisfaction predicted membership in the Social SRL profile (49.6 %), emphasizing the importance of online social presence in supporting SRL. Moreover, higher academic achievement and well-being were linked to Low, Social, or Independent profiles rather than Minimal or Moderate ones. These findings highlight how distance learners self-regulate and how the learning context influences SRL.